Understanding how the genomes of eukaryotes are duplicated during each cell cycle is a fundamental problem of modern biology and is a critical aspect of the more general problem of understanding the mechanisms that control cellular proliferation. The transition from G1 into S phase is a major decision point for the cell and is subject to elaborate controls whose mechanisms are not yet understood at the molecular level. (Bell, S. P. and A. Dutta (2002) Annu Rev Biochem 71: 333-74; Dutta, A. and S. P. Bell (1997) Annu Rev Cell Dev Biol 13: 293-332; Jallepalli, P. V. and T. J. Kelly (1997) Curr Opin Cell Biol 9(3): 358-63; Kelly, T. J. and G. W. Brown (2000) AnnuRev Biochem 69: 829-80; Stillman, B. (1996) Science 274(5293):1659-64) The stability of the genome depends upon the precise operation of the DNA “replication switch,” as well as upon the proper coupling of DNA replication to other events in the cell. It has become quite clear that perturbation of any of these mechanisms can contribute to cancer. (Sherr, C. J. (1996). Science 274(5293): 1672-7)
During the last decade, work in a number of laboratories has led to a dramatic advance in our understanding of cellular DNA replication (Bell, S. P. and A. Dutta, et al.; Kelly, T. J. and G. W. Brown, et al.). The analysis of simple model systems, particularly Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Schizosaccharomyces pombe, and Xenopus laevis, has resulted in the identification of proteins that act at origins of DNA replication to initiate DNA synthesis. A significant breakthrough was the discovery by Stillman and Bell of the six-subunit origin recognition complex (ORC), which binds to specific origins of DNA replication in S. cerevisiae and recruits additional initiation factors to form the pre-replication complex (pre-RC). The ORC has been conserved throughout eukaryotic evolution. (Chuang, R. Y., L. Chretien, et al. (2002) J Biol Chem 277(19): 16920-7; Gossen, M., D. T. Pak, et al. (1995) Science 270(5242): 1674-7; Moon, K. Y., D. Kong, et al. (1999) Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 96(22): 12367-12372; Rowles, A., J. P. Chong, et al. (1996) Cell 87(2): 287-96; Vashee, S., P. Simancek, et al. (2001) J Biol Chem 276(28): 26666-73) We now know that a common set of initiation proteins assemble at replication origins in all eukaryotes and that the activities of these proteins are regulated by specific protein kinases. However, despite this progress, our understanding of the biochemical mechanisms of initiation of eukaryotic DNA replication remains quite superficial.
Genetic studies in yeasts and biochemical studies in Xenopus have demonstrated that the initiation of eukaryotic DNA replication takes place in two stages. (Bell, S. P. and A. Dutta, et al.; Kelly, T. J. and G. W. Brown, et al.) In the first stage, which lasts from late M through the G1 phase of the cell cycle, pre-RCs are assembled at origins of DNA replication. At the beginning of S phase, pre-RCs are activated by the action of two heterodimeric protein kinases, Cdc7-Dbf4 and S phase cyclin-dependent kinase (S-CDK). This event marks the transition to the second stage of initiation, during which the origin is unwound and additional proteins are recruited to form active replication forks. The presence of cyclin dependent kinase activity (and perhaps other inhibitory factors) prevents further assembly of pre-RCs during the second stage of the initiation reaction. This mechanism constitutes a “replication switch” that ensures that origins of DNA replication fire only once each cell cycle, thus preserving genomic integrity.
As noted above, the activation of the pre-RC requires the activities of Cdc7-Dbf4 and S-CDK. Both kinases are activated at the G1/S boundary when their respective regulatory subunits accumulate to sufficient levels, and both appear to associate with the pre-RC. (Brown, G. W., P. V. Jallepalli, et al. (1997) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci., USA 94: 6142-6147; Dowell, S. J., P. Romanowski, et al. (1994) Science 265(5176): 1243-6; Jallepalli, P. V. and T. J. Kelly; Jares, P. and J. J. Blow (2000) Genes Dev 14(12): 528-40; Johnston, L. H., H. Masai, et al. (1999) Trends Cell Biol 9(7): 249-52; Leatherwood, J., A. Lopez-Girona, et al. (1996) Nature 379(6563): 360-3; Walter, J. C. (2000) J. Biol. Chem. 275(50): 39773-8) Although the regulation of S-CDK activity has been shown to be quite complex with multiple cyclin subunits pairing with multiple Cdk subunits, Cdc7 activity is strictly regulated by the expression of the Dbf4 subunit, which is very tightly cell cycle regulated with peak expression occurring at the G1/S boundary. (Bell, S. P. and A. Dutta, et al.) The activity of Cdc7 has been shown to be required for entry into S phase of the cell cycle. Studies in yeast have shown that cells depleted of this kinase activity progress from G1 to M phase without an intervening S phase, resulting in cell death (Bell, S. P. and A. Dutta, et al.; Kelly, T. J. and G. W. Brown, et al.), and conditional knockout mouse Embryonic stem (ES) cells for Dbf4 have recently been shown to undergo S phase arrest with resultant apoptosis when gene expression is silenced. (Yamashita, N., Kim, J-M, et al. (2005) Genes to Cells 10: 551-563) Genetic evidence has shown that the six subunit Minichromosome Maintenance complex (MCM2-7), the presumed helicase activity required for origin unwinding and the initiation of DNA replication (Bell, S. P. and A. Dutta, et al.; Kelly, T. J. and G. W. Brown, et al.), is a target of regulation by the Cdc7-Dbf4 kinase, and the Mcm2 protein is an excellent substrate for the Cdc7:Dbf4 kinase in vitro. (Sclafani, R. A. (2000) J Cell Sci 113(Pt 12): 2111-7) The MCM proteins and Cdc7 have been shown to be overexpressed in the majority of cancers including both solid tumors and hematologic malignancies. (Hess, G. F., Drong, R. F., et al. (1998) Gene 211 (1):133-40; Velculescu, V. E., Madden, S. L., et al. (1999) Nature Genetics 23: 387-88) Importantly, it has recently been shown that overexpression of Cdc7 in cutaneous melanoma samples was associated with poor risk disease and chemotherapy resistance. (Nambiar, S., Mirmohammadsadegh, A., et al. (2007) Carcinogenesis 12: 2501-2510) In addition, Cdc7 overexpression has also been shown in aggressive undifferentiated papillary thyroid carcinoma and in aggressive head and neck cancers that are positive for human papillomavirus (Fluge, O., Bruland, O., Akslen, L. A., et al. (2006) Thyroid 16 (2): 161-175; Slebos, R. J. C, Yi, Y., Ely, K., et al. (2006) Clin Cancer Res 12(3): 701-709). In fact, sensitive assay systems are being developed in Europe and the United States to detect the presence of MCM proteins in the urine of patients with genitourinary malignancies as well as breast cancer patients, and this seems to correlate with a more aggressive malignancy. Cdc7 activity is also conserved from yeast to man making it an attractive candidate for a therapeutic target. The logical interpretation of this data is that Cdc7:Dbf4 is a bona fide therapeutic target.